Comments on Theme 2

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9.  http://ixxzw.blogspot.se/2015/09/theme-2-after-seminar.html?showComment=1443085372548#c5311903899178280114
10. http://blog4course99.blogspot.se/2015/09/reflection-on-theme-2.html?showComment=1443087546933

 Reflection: what I learnt during week 39

Before beginning week 39, I implied theories and researches methods in my previous academic works but I was not able to evaluate their profundity and justify, for instance, if it is relevant and qualified theory. To be more concrete, what I learnt about the theory:

·         Theory provides an explanatory framework for an observation;

·         Theory is a form of practice. Theory is implied when the activity (research) is being carried out;

·         Theory is established and confirmed by experiments which lead to solid explanations;

·         Theory is a specific constructed model in order to represent reality;

·         Theory is about looking (the term praxis) and keeping the distance when you observe the phenomena.

There are few approaches to theories:

·         Scientific: theory is a constructed model which is based on scientific method and represent the world in a logic way.

·         Philosophical: theory is the statement which is not necessarily scientific tested; the ideas are more important rather than empirical data.

·         Post-humanistic: theory is about explanations and connections between phenomena, prepositions identify the object.  

It is important to point out that there is no consensus what theory is. The definition of theories varies depending on perspectives and goals of theory.

Theory vs truth

During the lecture it was said that “theory can be regarded as truth”.  The teacher asked us to think why the word “regard” is used instead of the formulation: theory is truth. And very interesting explanation came up. Theory is not the same as truth. There is always a chance that another theory will deny the previous “truth” stated by theory. Therefore, I would say that theory is current and temporal but not universal and long term truth. 

Theory and paradigms

Discussion about theory and truth leads to the topic of paradigms. As it was said during the seminar theories do not stand forever and shifting of paradigms encourages revolution of science and at that time new theories are formulated regarding to changed perspective to the point of view.

Theory and hypothesis

During the seminar most of our time was spent on defining what theory and hypothesis are. It was agreed that hypothesis is a tool to construct the theory. Hypothesis should be testable and usually it is based on assumptions and others theories.  It is worth mentioning that rejected hypothesis do not always deny the whole theory. Wrong hypothesis enforce to formulate new hypothesis and in theory is delineated but not necessarily the theory is admitted as false.  

Group discussion   

Our group was wondering about one common definition of theory. We agreed there are a lot of attributes and requirements regarding to theory but there is no commonly agreed definition. We came up to conclusion that it is impossible to determine the theory in one sentence. Also, in group we raised the question about the difference between knowledge and theory. It was difficult to find the answer, but it was agreed that knowledge is outcome of theory what is perceived as common agreement. Theory is more about the process trying to find out the answer and the significance of phenomena.

Additional literature:

1. Cooper, B., Glaesser, J., Hammersley, M. & Gomm, R. (2012). Challenging the Qualitative-Quantitative Divide Explorations in Case-focused Causal Analysis. 
2. Corbin, J, Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of Qualitative research. 
3. Flick, U. (2007). Designing Qualitative research.
4. Mansfield E, D., Pevehouse, J. C. (2009). Quantitative Approaches. In The Oxford Handbook of International Relations

   

Theme 4: Quantitative research

I chose the article Using social media applications for educational outcomes in college teaching: A structural equation analysis by Yingxia Cao and Paul C Hong. The paper is published on British Journal of Educational Technology (Impact Factor: 1.54). The quantitative study analyses social media impact on education. To be more precise, how students’ results are influenced by social media applications. Scholars formulated 8 hypotheses in terms of correlation between students’ results and apps. In order to support or refute the hypothesis researches conduct a survey of 168 faculty members. Regarding to the results of quantitative research, authors claim that social media positively influence on educational results.

 
Quantitative methods: benefits and limitations
Scholars use the exploratory questionnaires method to collect data. Measurement models SPSS and SmartPLS (statistic software) evaluate variables and find correlations among the constructs. Using mentioned measurement models scholars present descriptive statistics. Also, a partial least squares (PLS) regression is applied in order to examine the capacity of learning outcomes using mobile applications. Research field is limited with narrow investigated group since the study is concentrated only on students’ results at colleagues. Another limitation is caused by questionnaires formulations and narrow focus on participants. Only teachers evaluated how social media influence educational achievements, the view of students is not analyzed. Study provides defined and measured constructs which are considered as the benefit to carry out future researches.

Quantitative methods: what I learnt

Reading the research paper I learnt how to make a survey. Also, what kind of measurements models are applied to esteem variables. Moreover, this research paper is a good example how to combine and convert different questions to constructs and what kind of scales are used to measure that constructs.

Methodological problems and how to improve methods

Empirical data are based on personal answers (in one way opinion) and therefore results tend to be biased. Especially when a part of questions are formulated using the verb “I feel that using social media will help”. Therefore, this paper lacks of profound empirical data because now it is possible to interpreter collected data as personal view. Scholars agree that willing to measure the impact of apps on studies results more solid variables have to be included in the research field. “We recommend that future researchers incorporate other measures of learning outcomes such as students’ grade point average (GPA)” (Y. Cao, P. C. Hong, 2013, p. 591). Authors make an implication to future researches to carry out long term analysis measuring results before and after using social media.

Drumming in Immersive Virtual Reality: key points

The research paper analysis how virtual body influences psychological, behavioral and attitudinal human changes. Study raises the hypothesis that virtual appearance of different bodies will have different impact on behavioral changes. In order to prove or deny this hypothesis the experiment was conducted. Participants plaid drums with different virtual bodies and answered to the questions. After the experiment the hypothesis were approved. Virtual body results in self-identification with new body process and causes behavioral changes. Temporally changes perceiving and adapting own body with the virtual one occurs regardless of demographic and gender factor.

Drumming in Immersive Virtual Reality: what I learnt

Firstly, I deepened my knowledge how to do and summarize a research. For instance, reading preparation part I kept in mind that it is very important to clarify the rules to participants in order to get reliable data. Even the environment of place and virtual interior are important details analyzing cognitive changes. Also, it is important to learn how variables are measured and how data weighted. In my mind, this research is a good example how to define the research field and variables. Despite the fact that authors agree that it is difficult to convert performativity into a numerical quantity but the problem is solved defining “performativity’ as dimensionality of the movement data.” It can be assumed that conducting new experiments there is a risk to face with problem to measure variables. Therefore, the clear definition of measures is more than important. Moreover, the research paper is a good example how make literature review relevant in terms of own research. For instance, in the beginning Proteus and Doppelganger approaches were presented. After explaining results, it was pointed out how Drumming in Immersive Virtual Reality experiment differs from mentioned researches in the literature review. Finally, reading the research paper, I bear in mind how it is important to point out applicability of conducted research. In terms of Drumming in Immersive Virtual Reality, it is clearly stated where found results can be applied.

Definitions of quantitative and qualitative researches 

Primarily, quantitative research is based on empirical data. Correlations and results are used to test hypothesis. According to Edward D. Mansfield and Jon C. Pevehouse (Quantitative Approaches, 2009, p. 2) quantitative research:

· useful when analyzing a large number of observations
· link theory to statistical models
· tend to be especially transparent and replicable

Qualitative research is applied to interpreter data, analyzing the case and context, and trying to find causality of empirical data. “Qualitative research usually begins from relatively broad and open ended research problems and is committed to developing descriptive and theoretical ideas through the collection and analysis of data.” (B. Cooper, et al. Challenging the qualitative-quantitative divide: Explorations in case-focused causal analysis, 2012, p. 6). Qualitative research interprets correlation between variables. “Qualitative research is a process of examining and interpreting data in order to elicit meaning gain understanding and develop empirical meaning.” (J. Corbin, A. Strauss. Basics of Qualitative research, 2008, p. 1). Usually, scholars combine both types of researches. “Qualitative findings contribute to the interpretation of relationships between variables in quantitative data sets.” (U. Flick. Designing Qualitative research, 2007, p. 8). It is obvious that firstly you have to get data and correlations before going to analyze the relationship and causality.

Additional literature:

1. Cooper, B., Glaesser, J., Hammersley, M. & Gomm, R. (2012). Challenging the Qualitative-Quantitative Divide Explorations in Case-focused Causal Analysis. 
2. Corbin, J, Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of Qualitative research. 
3. Flick, U. (2007). Designing Qualitative research.
4. Mansfield E, D., Pevehouse, J. C. (2009). Quantitative Approaches. In The Oxford Handbook of International Relations

Comments on Theme 1

1. http://cloudsong223.blogspot.se/2015/09/theme-1-after-theory-of-knowledge-and.html?showComment=1442690009465

2. http://securepathofscience.blogspot.se/2015/09/theme-1-theory-of-knowledge-and-theory_14.html?showComment=1442691658119#c4674014867261901794

3. http://theoryandmethodmediatechnology.blogspot.se/2015/09/theme-1-theory-of-knowledge-and-theory_9.html?showComment=1442740266172#c2887237244339944142

4. http://theorymethodmediatech.blogspot.se/2015/09/theme1theory-of-knowledge-and-theory-of.html?showComment=1442742243608#c8545202554452715323

5. http://mediafluttery.blogspot.se/2015/09/theme-1-sumtheory-of-knowledge-and.html?showComment=1442744035297#c583227509433634453

6. http://tamfmtol.blogspot.se/2015/09/theme-1-post-theory-of-knowledge-and.html?showComment=1442745647908#c1384509604118667473

7. http://theandme15.blogspot.se/2015/09/theme-1-theory-of-knowledge-and-theory.html?showComment=1442747071879#c8926759283658911365

8. http://cscmediatechnologyassignment.blogspot.se/2015/09/reflection-of-theme-1.html#comment-form

9. http://pargman420.blogspot.se/2015/09/pre-seminar-reflection-1.html#comment-form

10. http://meglia.blogspot.se/2015/09/post-theme-1.html

Reflection: what I learnt during week 38

During the lecture, the historical background was presented in order to understand analyzed texts properly. It is important to note that W. Benjamin wrote "The Work of Art in the Age of Technical Reproductivity" in 1936 when it was not so obvious about Nazis’ ravages and the author revealed Nazis’ tools of barbarism. While M. Horkheimer and T. W. Adorno published "Dialect of Enlightenment" in 1944 and analyzed mass deception and culture industry in capitalism perspective. According to them, society is not enlightened with new technologies contrarily people are blind due to consuming and mass media. Both of these mentioned authors scrutinized interaction between culture and society, raised the questions about art revolutionary potential and defined the power of reproduction. Nevertheless, different perspective brought varied points of view. Therefore, the question about influence of cultures on revolutionaries and some other previous blog answers must be refined.

1. Adjustment: Does Benjamin's perspective differ from the perspective of Adorno & Horkheimer in this regard?

After the seminar it was clear that mass reproduction empowered ordinary people, looking from W. Benjamin's perspective. In philosopher’s view, technological improvement and changed the covered subjects (simple people on the screen) lead to dignity and liberation which are the core of revolutionary. The perspective of Adorno & Horkheimer differed. According to them, changes in culture are another way of repression. Reproduction is only the illusion of liberation, people are bounded with the mass production.

2. Adjustment: What is "Nominalism" and why is it an important concept in the text?

Nominalism says that the same object does not exist. Pen and another pen is not the same pen. Nominalism perceptive is based on features. The objects are explained particularly. Nominalists deny universal concept and contradicts to the theory of realism in order to demolish the concepts from society. Nominalism confirms what exists but it does not empower to change the order. While the goal of enlightenment is about initiating the changes and revising the established norms and structures. On the other hand, both nominalism and enlightenment perspectives analyze the word from the pragmatic point of view.

3. Adjustment: naturally and historically determined perception

Previous blog post answer to this question should be expanded. As it was written before, the way we conceive things depend on the historical context. W. Benjamin made art interaction with history as an argument that Nazis’art is one of the arts because the objective and universal art does not exist.

4. Adjustment: Aura in terms of revolutionary potential

It is worth pointing out what was said during the seminar about the link between aura and revolutionary. Aura does not exist in the reproductions but to W. Benjamin’s mind, destroying aura leads to revolutionary possibilities. Before mass reproduction, only the privilege class could afford to perceive aura which was set up in the original art artifact but technological revolution broke the privilege and gave the hope for ordinary people to be enrolled in the culture and in general in the administration of society.

5. Adjustment: What is the meaning and function of "myth" in Adorno and Horkheimer's argument?

Myth is lack of knowledge. Enlightenment is the way to get knowledge, study the objects through the distance. Both myth and enlightenment are based on observing regularities. Hence, the core question was raised during the lecture: how can we change the society if we articulate mimesis? Enlightenment closely ties up and finally ends up with myth. If we assume that thinking reproduces the world and leads to mimesis, then thinking is not necessary rather then it is advisable to carry out empirically investigation.

Theme 3: Research and Theory

DESCRIPTION OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

I chose a research journal Communication Research. It is one of the oldest bi-monthly journals. It is specialized in communication field.  As it is written on the Sage database, the journal publishes “researchers and practitioners with the most up-to-date, comprehensive and important research on communication and its related fields.” This journal has high scientific standards regarding the fact that impact factor is over 2.4

EXAMINATION OF PAPER: BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The article Civil Society and Online Political Discourse: The Network Structure of Unrestricted Discussions raises 5 questions and two hypotheses about interaction of civil society and online newsgroups. The purpose of this study is exploratory. The goal of this study: “to examine the free and unrestricted computer mediated social interactions” (Itai Himelboim, Civil Society and Online Political Discourse: The Network Structure of Unrestricted Discussions, 2011, p. 635). The research paper explains why the topic is chosen and its relevance.

RESEARCH

Qualitative and quantitative research methods are applied. Civil society and network-mediation are the main concepts in the research paper. These main concepts are respectively defined in terms of theoretical framework of civil society and network based conceptual framework. The frameworks are determined appropriately regarding to literature review and previous studies. The concepts are tied with each other since the core of analysis is civil engagement in the network, how these concepts correlate. 4 activity actors: in-degree, out-degree, in-replies, and out-replies are empirically measured in order to esteem interaction of mentioned concepts. The author fulfills the capacity to do a quantitative research and draw conclusions due to the fact that data are collected in 6 years’ period. In all, 375 messages are analyzed from 20 newsgroups. Despite the fact that there are sufficient data to draw conclusions, data are collected randomly. For instance, newsgroups are chosen according very abstract key words “philosophy” and “politics”. The author agrees that some of the analyzed messages are written in sport, hobby network groups. Quantitative data are adjusted according few methods: “Models for Skewed Count Distributions” and “Yule Distribution”. Variables and their correlations are defined in a clear way in terms of conducting quantitative research method. The second part of research is based on content analysis. However, particular methods or tools are not defined in the paper. It is not clear how and according what layers messages are examined. Therefore, it could be questioned how the conclusions of the messages’ content are made.

RESULTS AND IMPLICATIONS

Conclusions are significant because the results deny literature review. Study points out concerns and correlations but do not examine causality. Implications for future sciences researches are made. For instance, lurkers who read but do not comment are not examined in the study. Also, it is advised to future researchers to analyze and compare the differences of the concrete political newsgroups, as mentioned before in this study cases were picked randomly according broad keywords.

WHAT WOULD I DO DIFFERENTLY?

Willing to do a solid content analysis I would choose the particular topic and how that political philosophical question would be covered in chosen few groups.  In that case, qualitative data would be more measurable and comparable. Also, it would prevent from getting data from no-related hobby or sport groups as it was included in this research.

WHAT THEORY IS, AND WHAT THEORY IS NOT

There is an ability to imply theory in practice.  It means that theory is based on empirical data and provides the method how to do empirically research and verify the data. It is necessary to be able to verify the theory. Theory consists of systematical analysis, explanation, prediction and prescription.  Theory is a confirmed testable hypothesis proved by the arguments. Theory enhances the level of knowledge and articulates practice in a disciplined way.  Theory explicates causality and implies techniques or principles. The scope of implication the theory should be clearly defined.

THE TYPES OF THEORIES

Research paper Civil Society and Online Political Discourse: The Network Structure of Unrestricted Discussions applies 2 main theories. One of the theory explained what civil society is. 6 concepts of civil society are pointed out. Another theory determines computer-mediated communication and how it interacts with civil engagement. Theory of social interaction on networks is based on few indicators (out-degree; in-degree; power-law) and its correlation. Both of these theories define civil society and mediated network discourse and explain correlation of variables but do not go deeper into prediction and causality. Therefore, the type of theory is Analysis in terms of S. Gregor definitions.

BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF THEORIES

Analyzing theory defines categories properly and these definitions are the basic for the future researches. In addition, analyzing theory is applied when there is not so much information about the discourse. In analyzing theory description plays an important part but there is always a risk to generalize phenomenon. Another drawback of this analyzing theory that researches are conducted in a superficial shallow perspective. Analyzing theory does not point out causality and outcomes.  

Reflection: what I learnt during week 37

After the conclusion of first theme, it is clear how perception of the world was distinguished by Kant:

• World as itself
• World as we perceive

I. Kant denied the concept that the world is represented as a mirror. According to Kant, we cannot know anything about the world as itself only the God understands the world as itself. To Kant’s belief, humans apprehend the world as it is perceived from the personal experience standpoint. According to Kant, perception is based on 12 categories which have to be limited in space and in time. 12 categories organize the sense – substance of certain qualities. These concepts are the solid ground to perceive the world. As it was said during the lecture:

• Perception without conception is blind.
• Conception without perception is empty.

According to Kant, is impossible to gain knowledge if the world is not conceptual structured. But there are a priori things which do not require previous experience to perceive it. A priori definition: judgement could be verified before experience. For instance, table is a priori, there is no need to check if it is a table.

Group discussion

During the seminar our group mainly discussed about Kant’s ideas and we forgot to share the views about Socrtaes’ philosophy. Despite that, some drawn conclusions regarding Kant’s “Critique of Pure Reason”:

Defined and found the differences of a priori:

• A priori – verified judgement without experience.  
• A posteriori  – the answer, gained knowledge after the empirical research.
• Synthethic a priori – formulates 12 categories, adds time and space limitation. Without synthethic a priori structured conceptions will not be invoked.

In the group discussion, the attention was paid on the definition of “Pure reason”. The opinions dissented. In one mind, pure reason is the faculty of metaphysics and in other way around “Pure reason” could be interpreted as synthethic a priori. 

During the seminar I raised the questions:
If we assume that knowledge is based on 12 categories which structure perception of the world. Can we say that our knowledge is limited? But Kant would not agree with me. According to his theory, 12 categories are defined broadly. For instance, existence, plurality and other formulations imply wide researches.

During the seminar it was agreed that 12 categories give you the world not the limitation. I was trying to understand what the world itself means.  It turned out that Kant suggested analyzing the world not only the faculty of knowledge. And Kant’s 12 categories are raw data to go deeper. There will not be time and space – the conditions of the world perception – without people. The world is our world, there is no other world. Therefore, gaining knowledge is endless process

Plato´s dialogue Theaetetus

Socrates also spoke about knowledge as an outcome of perception. In Socrates philosophy, I would emphasize the theory that knowledge is already in our head, we just need to give a birth for knowledge. Hence, Socrates compared himself with the midwife. According to Socrates we see not with but through the eyes. On the seminar I clarified the meaning of this sentence. I comprehended “through eyes” theory as eyes are just a tool to reach our knowledge, articulated what is already constituted in minds.

Theme 2: Critical media studies

"Dialect of Enlightenment" by M. Horkheimer and T.W.Adorno 

1. M. Horkheimer and T.W.Adorno defined enlightenment as “widest sense”; “triumph of the factual mentality”; totalitarian interaction between human and nature (“Dialectic of Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments”, 2002, p. 2-4). Enlightenment is the way to demolish myth and “establish man as the master of nature” (M. Horkheimer and T.W.Adorno, “Dialectic of Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments”, 2002, p. 1).  Hence, enlightenment is based on standard of calculability, utility and invention. In other words, facts overcome the heritage of metaphysics: rituals, demons, illusions. Enlightenment supports rationalist and empiricist point of view. At the same time myth and enlightenment is closely related.  

2. Dialectic is the way to define the thing. According to dialectical thinking, the contradiction is the core in order to define the object. Firstly, you need to deny what is not the object willing to get the definition of what it is exactly. But dialectic involves more than rejection of the determination. Dialectic way of thinking encourages analysis of object features which is the background to admit

falseness.

3. Nominalism is a philosophy which stays that object has any sense and matter. Objects are commonly agreed definitions. Regarding this point of view, nominalism perspective denies metaphysics. Nominalists call objects as nomen, “the non-extensive, restricted concept” (M. Horkheimer and T.W.Adorno, “Dialectic of Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments”, 2002, p. 17). Enlightenment is described as “nominalist tendency”. Both nominalism and enlightenment perspectives eliminate metaphysics. Nominalism does not analyze the matter of object while enlightenment is about the disclosure of the proper definition.

4. Looking from enlightenment perspective, myth is profane deception and unclarified matter, unprofound theory. Enlightenment has to overcome myth, but “myth becomes enlightenment” (M. Horkheimer and T.W.Adorno “Dialectic of Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments”, 2002, p. 7). It means that myth raises the questions which are being articulated by enlightenment but in the end “it falls as judge under the spell of myth” (M. Horkheimer and T.W.Adorno “Dialectic of Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments”, 2002, p. 8). Myth will not exist if it is not articulated, and enlightenment is the way to spread myth. Regarding to this M. Horkheimer and T.W.Adorno point, the question can be raised: if there is any possibility to dissolve the myth? As I understood, it is an endless process.

"The Work of Art in the Age of Technical Reproductivity" by W. Benjamin 

1. The concepts "superstructure" means public areas which are under power and control. For example, culture is superstructure. Substructure is interpreted as the means to develop, maintain and spread the concept of superstructure. For instance, media is one of substructure.  According to Marxist perspective, culture is a part of superstructures in society. The Marxist theory is based on “rendering the great mass of humanity “propertyless <…>” (Karl Marx, “The German Ideology”, 1845). To reach this goal all public spheres (superstructures) have to be made simultaneously and be enrolled in the mass production (substructures). Under these circumstances, the society will be evolved into “universal development of productive forces” (Karl Marx, “The German Ideology”, 1845). Looking from Marxist perspectives, culture as a superstructure must be controlled willing to suppress the masses “which bring culture within the sphere of administration” (Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, “The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception”, 1944).  

2. Culture has revolutionary potential due to its power to influence masses. W. Benjamin described culture as an art of political regime which helps to bring and formulate revolutionary demands. W. Benjamin emphasized the film as the “powerful agent” to demolish cultural heritage and establish perception in favor of regime. According to W. Benjamin, reproduction of art demolishes ritual and makes new politics practice. Reproduced culture loses the primal ritual instead of that establishes and maintains cult of authority. Revolutionary will not occur without masses and culture is a tool to control masses and direct them in the favorable way. Perspective of Adorno & Horkheimer confirms Benjamin’s view to culture as a way to govern masses. Especially, films and radio “used as an ideology to legitimize the trash they intentionally produce” (Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, “The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception”, 1944). Adorno & Horkheimer defined reproduction of art like “ideological truce” to help the political leaders to avoid revolutionary protests.

3. To W. Benjamin’s view, periods of history influenced art and how it was perceived. Social movements, philosophical schools determined rules of art and set up public norms. For instance, ancient Greek culture was based on gods’ depiction according to gold ratio. In ancient Greece, beauty was a divine symmetry. Besides historical time, artifact as itself has “unique phenomenon of a distance” which is called aura and exists only in natural circumstances, something which is far behind but can be admired in the particular moment. To W. Benjamin’s mind, naturally perception is “sense of the universal equality of things”.

4. According to Benjamin, aura is unique phenomenon of a distance. It consists of art uniqueness in time and in tradition. Aura is a part of cult, it appears during the ritual in the previous mainly religious and spiritual ceremonies. It is not able to reproduce aura because the reproduction lacks of time and cultural historical heritage. Both aura in natural objects and in art objects lie in uniqueness and distance. But aura of art objects is based on ritual.

Theme 1: Theory of knowledge

"Critique of Pure Reason" Kant's ideas

Kant said that the path of science is the endless process and its outcome can even not be well grounded. To Kant’s belief, scientists are groping around the concepts trying to reach the real perception but they are doing the research in a reversal way. Philosopher assumed that object as a priori can be determined through experience. Nevertheless, only the experience will not constitute the matter of the world because there is always something behind personal knowledge. Philosopher analyzed relation between cognition and object and defined the object in a twofold meaning: things as appearances and things in themselves. The second groups of object are not perceived from experience or empirical observation, for example, God or faith. These things have to be considered as a priori, but Kant criticized that “our representation of things as they are given to us does not conform to these things as they are in themselves but rather conform our way of representing” (Kant, "Critique of Pure Reason", p. 112). Therefore, scientists limit themselves presuming according to existing categories of objects and do not pay attention to the object as the core of cognition. According to Kant, the progress of metaphysics could be made if it is agreed that we assume things from practical point of view and do not limit cognition categories.

Socrates: "Knowledge is perception"

To Socrates’ mind, gaining knowledge is the process because “nothing is self-existent” (Plato, Theaetetus). Perception is individualistic symbiosis between body and human sensitives under the certain circumstances. For instance, wine would be bitter if a person is ill and become sweeter after the recovery. Socrates applied motion theory to the senses: the eye is a tool defining as “seeing eye” to catch and transfer as an example white colour which is an instrument to cognize sense - whiteness. According to Socrates, apprehension is based on interaction between agent and the patient. In that case the organ is the percipient which is always in a motion (different circumstances) and make the perception. Socrates arguments are related with empiricism since emphasize of sense. Adherents of empiricism support Socrates idea that the perception is brought about by senses.